Module 1 to Module 7

MODULE 1: BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 

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Human Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through life-span. It includes growth and decline. Development can be positive or negative.

SOME MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1st PRINCIPLE - Development is relatively orderly. TWO TYPES OF PATTERN 1. PROXIMODISTAL PATTERN The muscular growth of the trunk and the arms comes from earlier as compared to the hands and finger

2. CEPHALOCAUDAL PATTERN During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top – at the head – with physical growth size, weight and future differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom.

2nd PRINCIPLE - While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcome of developmental process and the rate of development are likely to vary among individuals. 3rd PRINCIPLE - Development takes place gradually. 4th PRINCIPLE - Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional process.  

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Biological- Involves changes in the individual’s physical nature. Cognitive- Involves changes in the individuals thought, intelligence, and language. Socio-Emotional- Includes changes in the individual’s relationship with other people, changes in emotion, and changes in personality. APPROACHES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Traditional Development - Human development shows extensive change from the birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in the late old age. Life Span Development - Human development occurs all throughout the lifespan of an individual. 

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Life-Long – It does not end by adulthood and no development stage dominates the development Multi-dimensional – Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions.

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Plastic – Development is possible throughout the life-span. Contextual – Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. Growth, maintenance and regulation – These are considered goals in that varies in every developmental change.

MODULE 2: THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT & DEVELOPMENTAL TASK For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task. John Santrock’s research focuses on family processes and children’s socio-emotional development. He conducted the first major research study on comparisons of children in mother and father custody, families. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Pre-natal Development – involves tremendous growth from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioural capabilities. Progress before Birth: Three Phase Germinal Stage – First 2 weeks (conception, implantation, formation of placenta) Embryonic Stage – 2 weeks to 2 months (formation of vital organs and system) Fetal Stage – 2 months – birth (bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply age of viability 2. Infancy – birth to 2 years A time of extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological activities are just begin. Task: Change from plump baby to leaner more muscular toddler, begins to walk and talk, ability for passive language, tentative sense of independence, determined explorer. 3. Early childhood – 3 to 5 years old These are pre-school years. Young children to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in play with peers. Task: wants to be just like parents, climbs stairs with alternating feet, develops fears, can accurately copy figures, may begin to read. 4. Middle and Late Childhood – 6 to 12 years old The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child’s world and selfcontrol increases. Task: both large and small muscles welldeveloped, developed complex motor skills, from independent activities to same sex group activities, acceptance by peers is

very important, parental approval still important. 5. Adolescence – 13 to 18 years old Begins with rapid physical changes dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent. Though is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family. Task: traumatic life stage for child and parent, puberty occurs, extremely concerned with appearance, trying to establish self-identity, confrontations with authority. 6. Early Adulthood – 19 to 29 years old It is the time of establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing children. Task: physical development complete, emotional maturation continues to develop, usually learned to accept responsibility for actions and accept criticism, usually knows how to profit from errors, sociality progress from age-related peer groups to people with similar interests. 7. Middle Adulthood – 30 to 60 years old It is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career. Task: physical changes begin to occur (hair begin to thin & gray, wrinkles appear, hearing & vision decrease, muscles lose tone), main concerns (children, health, job, security, aging parents and fear of aging), love and acceptance still take a major role. 8. Late Adulthood – 61 years old and above It is time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health. Life review, retirement and adjustment of new social roles. Task: fastest growing age bracket of society, physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination), some memory problems, coping with retirement and forms of entertainment, very concerned with health and finances, significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high.

MODULE 3: ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Each of us had his/her own way of looking at our own and other people’s development. These paradigms of human development while obviously lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework for understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their own models of human development. Back up by solid research, they take stand on issues on human development.

theory says that someone changes throughout their life along a smooth course while the discontinuity theory instead contends that people change abruptly. These changes can be described as a wide variety of someone’s social and behavioral make-up like their emotions, traditions, beliefs. 3.

Stability versus Discontinuity

Deals with the issue of whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure throughput the lifespan.

ISSUES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1.

Nature versus Nurture

The degree to which human behavior is determined by genetics/biology (nature) or learned through interacting with the environment (nurture).

The stability-change debate describes the developmental psychology discussion about whether personality traits that are present in an individual at birth remain constant or change throughout the life span. MODULE 4: RESEARCH IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Nature - behavior is caused by innate characteristics: The physiological/biological characteristics we are born with. - Behavior is therefore determined by biology.

Teacher as Consumers/End users of Research - Research gives teacher and also policy makers important knowledge to used in decision making for the benefit of learners and their families.

- Also a Determinist view – suggest all behavior is determined by hereditary factors: Inherited characteristics or genetic make-up we are born with.

Teachers as Researchers

- All possible behaviors are said to be present from conception.

- It is for the students and teachers too.

- The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers.

The Scientific Method - Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviors; some present from birth, others pre-programmed to emerge with age. - Is a developmental approach: Example is Piaget: children’s thought processes change at pre-determined age-related stages changes in age are related to changes in behavior. Nurture - Behaviorist theories are nurture theories: - Behavior is shaped by interactions with the environment. - Born an empty vessel- waiting to be filled up by experiences gained from environmental interaction. - No limit to what they can achieve: Depends on quality of external influences and not genes.

- The quality of environment is the key. You can become anything provided the environment is right.

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Continuity versus Discontinuity

Are two competing theories in developmental psychology that attempt to explain how people change through the course of their lives, where the continuity

- One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method, since research is a systematic and logical process. Research Designs - Researchers that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us with valuable information about child and adolescent development. 1. Case Study – an in-depth look at an individual. 2. Correlational Study – A research design that determines associations or relationship. 3. Experimental – A research design that determines cause-and-effect relationships. The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in on variable cause changes in one another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. 4. Naturalistic Observation – focuses on children’s experiences in natural settings. This does not involve any intervention or the manipulation on the part of the researcher. This technique involves

observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic, cost-prohibitive or would unduty affect the subject’s behavior. 5. Longitudinal – This research design studies and follows through a single group over ra period of time. The same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. 6. Cross-Sectional – A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time. 7. Sequential – this is combined crosssectional and longitudinal approaches to learn about life-span development. 8. Action Research – is a reflective process of progressive problem-solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a “community of influence”. To improve the way they address issues and solve problems. Data Gathering Techniques - Data collection is the process of gathering - And measuring information on targeted variables in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes. 1. Observation 2. Interview 3. Questionaire 4. Life-History Records ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 1. Minimizing the risk of harm. 2. Obtaining informed consent. 3. Protecting anonymity and confidentiality. 4. Avoiding deceptive practices. 5. Providing the right to withdraw. IMPACT OF TEACHERS’ INVOLVEMENT ON RESEARCH 1. may become more reflective, more ethical and analytical in their teaching and more open and committed to professional development. 2. participating in teacher research also helps teacher become more deliberate in their decision-making and actions in the classroom. 3. develops the professional dispositions of lifelong learning, reflective and mindful teaching and self-transformation. 4. may lead to rethinking and reconstructing what it means to be a teacher/educator and consequently, the way teachers relate to children and students. 5. potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire.

MODULE 5: FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC (SEXUAL) THEORY

MODULE 6: PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE (MENTAL) DEVELOPMENT

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) he is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, also probably the most controversial.

Jean Piaget – proposed the four stages of cognitive development. Believed that children are like “little scientists”. BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS

FIVE STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Schema – an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience 2. Assimilation – the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema. 3. Accommodation – process of creating a new schema. 4. Equilibration – achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENT Freud described personality structures as having THREE COMPONENTS namely; the id, ego, and superego. The id – is the part of personality structure that includes a human’s basic needs, instinctual drives such as hunger and aggressiveness. Ego – is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with the reality that attemps to choose between the id and superego. Superego – is the moral part of the personality that includes values, social rules and the moral of the society which are learnt from parents or in the society. FREUD’S CONCEPTION OF THE HUMAN PERSONALITY Freud uses an iceberg model or a topographical model to further understand the his conception about human personality. UNCONSCIOUS – it is the large part of our mind. These are the things which is hard to reach but acts independently. It includes desire, wishes, fantacy etc.

Additional: when our experiences do not match our schemata (many schema), we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then go again to process of assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.

STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 1. Sensori-Motor Stage – birth to 2 years old During this stages, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experience and manipulating objects. Object permanence – ability of child to know. 2. Pre-Operational Stage – 2 to 7 years old During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols, However, Piaget noted that they do not yet understand concrete logic.

Decentering – this refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of object and situations. Reversibility – ability of a child to reverse their thinking. Conservation – ability to know that certain properties of objects like numbers, mass, volume or area do not change even there is a change in appearance. Seriation – ability to order or arrange things in series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size. 4. Formal-Operational Stage – 12 to 15 years old Thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problem and can hypothesize. Hypothetical Reasoning – ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgement. It can deal with “what if” questions. Analogical Reasoning – ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers. Deductive Reasoning – ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation. MODULE 7: ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for doing the phrase identity crisis.

Symbolic Function – ability to represent objects and events.

Erikson’s “Psychosocial” term is derived from the two source words namely psychological (or the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality and etc.) and social (external relationship and environment).

Egocentrism – tendency of the child to only see his point of view.

Syntonic – for the first listed “positive” disposition in each crisis.

Centration – tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a things or event.

Dystonic – for the second listed “negative” disposition.

Irreversibility – inability to reverse their thinking.

Additional: if a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives. Psychosocial Crisis – two opposing emotional crisis.

CONSCIOUS - paying attention to the things at the moment includes critical thinking processes.

Animism – tendency of a child to attribute human like traits.

SUBCONSCIOUS – includes the things which we are aware but we are not paying attention about it.

Transductive Reasoning – pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.

NONCONSCIOUS – (represented by water) these are the things that we are not aware of or have not experienced.

3. Concrete-Operational Stage – 8 to 11 years old Ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.

Malignancy – (excessive negative) it involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspects of the tasks, such as person who cannot trust others. Maladaptation – (excessive positive) is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative such as a person who trusts too much. Mutuality – reflects the effect of generation on each other, especially among families, and

particularly between parents and children and grandchildren. Generativity – actually named dispositions with one of the crisis stages (Generativity vs Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant. Relationship between adults and the best interest of children – one’s own children, and in a way everyone else’s children – the next generation, and all the following generation.

Stage 1: Infancy Age: Infant – 18 months Psychosocial Crisis: Trust versus Mistrust Maladaptation: Sensory Maladjustment Malignancy: Withdrawal Virtue Developed: Hope Stage 2: Early Childhood Age: 18 months to 3 or 4 years old Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Maladaptation: Impulsiveness Malignancy: Compulsiveness Virtue Developed: Willpower/Determination Stage 3: Early Childhood Age: 3 to 5 years old Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative versus Guilt Maladaptation: Ruthless Malignancy: Inhibition Virtue Developed: Purpose/Courage Stage 4: School-Age Age: 5 to 13 years old Psychosocial Crisis: Industry versus Inferiority Maladaptation: Narrow Virtuosity Malignancy: Inertia Virtue Developed: Competency Stage 5: Adolescence Age: 13 to 21 years old Psychosocial Crisis: Identity versus Role Confusion Maladaptation: Fanaticism Malignancy: Repudiation Virtue Developed: Fidelity/Loyalty Stage 6: Young Adulthood Age: 21 to 39 years old Psychosocial Crisis: Intimacy versus Isolation Maladaptation: Promiscuity Malignancy: Exclusion Virtue Developed: Love Stage 7: Middle Adulthood Age: 40 to 65 years old Psychosocial Crisis: Generativity versus Stagnation Maladaptation: Overextension Malignancy: Rejectivity Virtue Developed: Care Stage 8: Late Adulthood/Maturity Age: 65 to Death Psychosocial Crisis: Ego Integrity versus Despair Maladaptation: Presumption Malignancy: Disdain Virtue Developed: Wisdom